Great White Shark (Carcharodon carcharias)

Great white shark Temporal range: Early Pliocene – Recent 5–0 Ma[1] PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓ Pal. Eocene Oligo. Miocene P P
Male off Isla Guadalupe, Mexico
Conservation status
Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)[2] (Global)
Critically Endangered (IUCN 3.1)[3][4] (Europe and the Mediterranean)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Chondrichthyes
Subclass:	Elasmobranchii
Division:	Selachii
Order:	Lamniformes
Family:	Lamnidae
Genus:	Carcharodon Smith, 1838
Species:	C. carcharias
Binomial name
Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758)
Range based on the IUCN (2018)   Extant (Resident)   Possibly extant
Synonyms
List Squalus carcharias Linnaeus, 1758 Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758) Squalus caninus Osbeck, 1765 Carcharias lamia Rafinesque, 1810 Carcharias verus Cloquet, 1817 Squalus vulgaris Richardson, 1836 Carcharias vulgaris (Richardson, 1836) Carcharodon smithii Agassiz, 1838 Carcharodon smithi Bonaparte, 1838 Carcharodon rondeletii Müller & Henle, 1839 Carcharodon capensis Smith, 1839 Carcharias atwoodi Storer, 1848 Carcharias maso Morris, 1898 Carcharodon albimors Whitley, 1939

The great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), also known as the white shark, white pointer, or great white, is a large shark. It is closely related to the mako sharks, the porbeagle, and the salmon shark. It is a robustly built species with a grayish upperside and a white underside. The white shark is one of the largest living shark and fish species, being smaller than the whale shark and basking shark. It has about 300 triangular, serrated teeth that are continuously replaced. Its massive, fatty liver can reach over a quarter of its body weight, providing buoyancy and storing energy. The species is partially warm-blooded, an adaptation that allows it to remain active in colder waters.

White sharks inhabit tropical and temperate ocean waters around the world and can be found both along the coast and further out to sea. Populations are most concentrated at the Pacific and Atlantic sides of North America and in the waters of southern Africa and Oceania. They are a highly migratory species, traveling between the coast and open ocean and even between continents. The white shark preys on marine mammals such as seals and dolphins, as well as fish, including other sharks, and cephalopods. It is also a prolific scavenger of whale carcasses. Though normally an apex predator, the species is sometimes preyed on by orcas. White sharks are generally solitary, but may gather in aggregations, particularly at feeding sites. They may communicate and establish dominance hierarchies with body language. The species reproduces with pups hatching from eggs inside the female before being born live. Juvenile white sharks typically inhabit shallower water and are limited to feeding on smaller prey.

The white shark has a fearsome reputation among the public. It is featured in the 1974 novel Jaws and its 1975 film adaptation, both of which portray it as a ferocious man-eater. In reality, white sharks normally do not prey on humans and the majority of bites are due to curiosity or possibly mistaken identity. Many attempts have been made to keep the species in captivity, but specimens either ended up dying or being released. White shark aggregations have attracted tourists who may view them from boats or from inside shark cages.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the white shark as a vulnerable species globally and critically endangered regionally in European and Mediterranean waters. Major threats have included accidental catching by commercial fisheries, recreational fishing, and trapping in protective drum-lines and gillnets along beaches. Several governments have enacted protections for the species, including bans on catching and killing it.

The most common English names for the species include great white shark, white shark, and Australian variant white pointer.^[5][6] These names refer to its white underside, which is noticeable in dead sharks lying upside down.^[7] Colloquial use favours the name great white shark or simply great white, with great perhaps emphasizing the size and power of the species. Scientists typically use white shark, as no "lesser white shark" exists for comparison,^[8] though some use white shark to refer to all members of the Lamnidae.^[9]

The scientific generic name Carcharodon is a portmanteau of two Ancient Greek words. The prefix carchar- is derived from κάρχαρος (kárkharos), which means "sharp". The suffix -odon derives from ὀδών (odṓn), which translates to "tooth". The specific name carcharias is from the καρχαρίας (karkharías), the Ancient Greek word for shark.^[10][7] The white shark was one of the species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae and assigned the scientific name Squalus carcharias, Squalus being the genus in which he placed all sharks.^[11] By the 1810s, the shark was recognized as needing to be placed in a new genus, but not until 1838 did Sir Andrew Smith coin the name Carcharodon as the new genus.^[12]

A few attempts have been made to describe and classify the white shark before Linnaeus. One of the earliest mentions of it in literature as a distinct type of animal appears in Pierre Belon's 1553 book.^[a] In it, he illustrated and described the shark under the name Canis carcharias based on the ragged nature of its teeth and its perceived similarities with dogs.^[b] Another name used for the white shark around this time was Lamia, first coined by Guillaume Rondelet in his 1554 book Libri de Piscibus Marinis, which also identified it as the fish that swallowed the prophet Jonah in biblical texts.^[13]

The white shark is the sole living species in the genus Carcharodon, and is one of five living species belonging to the family Lamnidae.^[10] The other four members of this family are the mako sharks, porbeagle, and salmon shark. The family belongs to the Lamniformes, the order of mackerel sharks.^[9]

Most phylogenetic analyses based on molecular data or anatomical features place the white shark as the sister clade to the mako shark clade with the Lamna clade as the sister clade to all others in the family.^[14][15] Under this, the 1996 molecular clock study dated the most recent common ancestor of the white shark and the makos between 60 and 43 million years ago (mya).^[c][17] A more recent 2024 clock shifted the range between 57.2 and 31.8 mya.^[d][18] A minority of analyses recovered an alternate placement of the white shark as the sister clade to the rest.^[15] Based on this, a 2025 study estimated the divergence between the lineages of the white shark and other members of Lamnidae at 47.4 mya.^[19]

The white shark first appears in the fossil record in the Pacific basin around 6–5 mya between the late Miocene and early Pliocene.^[1][20] Like all sharks, the white shark's skeleton is made primarily of soft cartilage that does not preserve well. As a result, the overwhelming majority of fossils are teeth.^[21] Nevertheless, paleontologists have traced the emergence of the white shark and its immediate ancestry to a large extinct shark known as Carcharodon hastalis. This species had teeth similar to the modern white shark's, except for the cutting edges which lacked serrations.^[20] C. hastalis occupied a lower position in the food web compared to modern white sharks,^[22][23] and was probably mostly fish-eating^[20][24] with some marine mammals in its diet.^[25]

Around 8–6 mya, a Pacific population of C. hastalis evolved into C. hubbelli. This divergent lineage was characterized by a gradual development of serrations over the next few million years.^[20] It is likely the ancestral unserrated population had already been regularly targeting marine mammals for millions of years.^[25] Teeth from the same strata may exhibit significant variation in serration development and morphology, which may be indicative of persistent interbreeding with C. hastalis for at least some time.^[26] White sharks dispersed globally by the end of the Pliocene, replacing the much larger shark megalodon.^[1][27]

White sharks from Guadalupe Island (left) and South Africa (right). Recent genetic evidence suggests these two sharks belong to separate divergent lineages.^[18]

Almost 60% of the white shark's genome consists of repeated sequences. The genome has remained relatively stable in its evolution.^[28] The white shark as a species does not behave as a unified metapopulation at the global scale.^[29] Instead, populations within the major ocean basins show distinct genetic lineages that diverged from each other at least thousands of years ago. A 2020 mitochondrial DNA study concluded that Mediterranean sharks show closer affinity with Australia/New Zealand and Northeastern Pacific sharks than with sharks from South Africa and the Northwestern Atlantic. The researchers suggest that, over 3 mya, sharks from the former region swam to South Africa and swam north in response to Pleistocene climatic oscillations and ended up in the Mediterranean.^[30] A 2024 study using nuclear DNA, concluded that white shark populations can be divided into three major clades, North Atlantic (represented by the US East Coast and Mediterranean), Indo-Pacific (represented by Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa) and North Pacific (represented by California, Baja California, and East Asia) which diverged more recently around 100,000–200,000 years ago in response to lowered sea levels.^[18]

A 2025 study affirmed the existence of these three clades, but found that they diverged around 7,000 years ago following a decline in the global white shark population which started 800,000 years ago. Analysis of Y chromosome (father-inherited) haplotypes likewise found no clear geographic structure, consistent with recent fragmentation.^[19] The datings by the 2024 study coincide with the penultimate glaciation, which may have restricted cross-oceanic movements through sea level fall.^[18] Separation probably remains enforced by thermal barriers, namely the cold Benguela upwelling separating South Africa from the Atlantic (which is known to deter white sharks) and the warm equatorial waters separating the North and South Pacific (a known soft barrier for many sharks and rays).^[18][19]

The white shark has a stocky, torpedo-shaped body with a short, cone-shaped snout. Its long gill slits do not reach around the head. It has a large triangular first dorsal fin, which partly lines up with the pectoral fins, and tiny second dorsal fin. The tail fin has two lobes of similar size and a single keel, and the anal fin is tiny.^[7][31] The white shark has a countershaded coloration for camouflage; being dark on top, usually blue-gray or gray-brown, with a white underside. It also has black tips on the underside of the pectoral fins.^[31][32] There is evidence that the species can change pigments, adding melanin to blotches of white over the course of months.^[33] The skin is covered in dermal denticles (tooth-like scales) which are smaller than in other sharks and have a three-to-five-ridged surface, with each ridge having tips that point backwards.^[34][35]

The white shark is considered one of the largest living sharks and fish, but is smaller than the whale shark and basking shark.^[36][37] Female white sharks measure on average 4.6–4.9 m (15–16 ft) in length and weigh 1,000–1,900 kg (2,200–4,200 lb) while males average 3.4–4.0 m (11–13 ft) in length and weigh 680–1,000 kg (1,500–2,200 lb).^[31][38] The maximum size of the white shark has been debated. Its reputation has led to exaggerated and discredited claims of specimens reaching over 11 m (36 ft) during the 19th and 20th centuries.^[39] Biologists Richard Ellis and John E. McCosker wrote that "These giants seem to disappear or shrink when a responsible observer approaches with tape measure".^[40]

According to shark expert John Ernest Randall, the largest white shark reliably measured was a 5.94 m (19.5 ft) specimen reported from Ledge Point, Western Australia in 1987.^[41][42] Randall states that the species can likely grow larger than 6 m (20 ft) in length.^[43] A 2014 study of white shark catch records in the northwest Pacific concluded that the longest reliably measured shark was 6.02 m (19.8 ft) in total length and the heaviest weighed 2,530 kg (5,580 lb).^[44] A complete female white shark specimen caught in the Mediterranean and displayed in the Museum of Zoology in Lausanne, Switzerland, measured 5.83 m (19.1 ft) in total body length with the tail fin in its depressed position, and is estimated to have weighed 2,000 kg (4,410 lb), making it the largest preserved specimen.^[42]

The triangular teeth can reach 7.5 cm (3.0 in).^[45] As juveniles, they are elongated and pointy but become broader and more serrated as they develop into adults. This reflects a shift from a diet mainly of fish to the incorporation of marine mammals. The front teeth are adapted for penetrating into prey while those located towards the back of the mouth, being more flattened laterally and bent backwards, are designed for tearing.^[46] The teeth are arranged in rows like a conveyor belt, with teeth in the back moving to replace those in front. An open mouth exposes roughly 26 and 24 front row teeth on the front row of the upper and lower jaw respectively, with a total of 300 teeth in the mouth.^[47]

The jaws are separate from the skull, and are connected to the body entirely by muscles and tendons; allowing them to project in and out.^[48] A 2008 study using a computer scan of a 2.5 m (8.2 ft) long and 240 kg (530 lb) juvenile white shark determined that the specimen could exert a bite force of 1,602 newtons (360 lbf) in the front and 3,131 newtons (704 lbf) in the back. From this, the researchers calculated that a specimen 6.4 m (21 ft) long and massing 3,324 kg (7,328 lb) could exert a bite force of 9,320 newtons (2,100 lbf) in the front and 18,216 newtons (4,095 lbf) in the back.^[49] The jaws are strengthened by mineralized cartilage; this is lacking in young white sharks which have to eat softer food.^[50]

As with other sharks, white sharks use five senses when hunting; eyesight, hearing, olfaction (smell), electroreception (via pits called Ampullae of Lorenzini) and water movement detection (via a lateral line).^[51][52] Analysis of the brain and cranial nerves suggest that sight and smell are the most developed.^[51] The eyes of the white shark can appear solid black but have blue irises, and the pupil is more horizontal than in other sharks.^[53][54] The eyes have a relatively low ratio of rods to cones, indicating daytime vision.^[55] They lack nictitating membranes (a transparent third eyelid) but possess well developed muscles that allow them to roll around to keep track of prey and roll back to avoid attacks.^[55][56] The white shark has a relatively large olfactory bulb, an adaptation for detecting scents across open ocean.^[57] The vomeronasal system, located in the roof of the mouth, also appears to play a role in olfactory sensing.^[28]

The white shark is an obligate ram ventilator; to breathe it must swim constantly so water flows through the gills.^[58] Spiracles, extra breathing holes behind the eyes common in bottom dwelling sharks, are reduced or absent in this species.^[59] Over 95% of the shark's musculature is white fast twitch muscles, which allow them to move in quick sprints, particularly when ambushing prey. The rest is dark slow-twitch muscles which contain oxygen and power the shark while at cruising speed.^[60]

The white shark has a large, double-lobed, liver that can be almost 30% of its body weight, and stores lipids, fatty acids and oils.^[61][62][63] The liver helps keep the shark from sinking, as the oil is six times more buoyant than the surrounding water.^[63] The lipids and fatty acids provide the shark energy for travel and also power reproduction and growth.^[61][62] One study concluded that a white shark liver is more energy-rich than whale blubber.^[62] White sharks appear to have strong immune systems and can tolerate high amounts of toxic heavy metals like mercury and arsenic in their blood, more so than other vertebrates.^[64] They are also documented to heal relatively quickly from even severe wounds,^[65] and the species' genome shows "positive selection in key genes involved in the wound-healing process".^[28]

White sharks use a system of blood vessels to warm-up portions of their body (regional endothermy), which allows them to be active and hunt in cool waters.^[66][67] In this complex blood vessel system, known as a rete mirabile, warm blood generated from the dark muscles is constantly supplied to other parts of the body within a countercurrent exchange system.^[66][67][68] Heat is retained within the body rather than exiting via the gills.^[69] Warm blood can also be redirected from the liver to the body core via a vascular shunt, which can open and close. In addition, the species has an enlarged, thickened heart and its blood contains more red blood cells and hemoglobin than most mammals and birds.^[67] One study found that stomach temperatures ranged from 24.7–26.8 °C (76–80 °F) in waters 12.9–16.1 °C (55–61 °F).^[67]

White sharks range from tropical to temperate and even colder waters around the world,^[7] with major populations in the northwestern and northeastern Pacific, western North Atlantic, the Mediterranean, southern African waters and Oceania.^[44][70] It is also present near the coasts of South America, but appears to be uncommon.^[71][72] Shark expert Greg Skomal lists the Farallon Islands, California, Guadalupe Island, Mexico, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, Western Cape, South Africa, Neptune Islands, Australia, and both Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands, New Zealand as major coastal feeding aggregations.^[73] Researchers have also identified an offshore feeding aggregation between western North America and Hawaii dubbed the White Shark Café.^[74]

White sharks can be found both along the coast and in the open ocean. They are typically close to the surface, but may dive to depths of up to 1,300 m (4,300 ft).^[7][31] Deeper dives are more common in the open ocean.^[75][76] Coastal habitats used include nearshore archipelagos, offshore reefs, banks and shoals, and headlands.^[7] A 2018 study indicated that white sharks will congregate in anticyclonic eddies in the open ocean.^[77] Juvenile white sharks are more limited to shallow coastal waters with temperatures between 14 and 24 °C (57 and 75 °F).^[78] Increased sightings of young sharks in areas they were not previously common, such as Monterey Bay on the central California coast, suggest climate change may be forcing juveniles closer to the poles.^[79]

White sharks go on vast migrations in response to food availability and temperature changes, as well as possibly to mate.^[74] One individual that was tagged off the South African coast swam to the southern coast of Australia and back within a year. Another white shark from South Africa was tracked swimming to Australia's northwestern coast and back, a journey of 20,000 km (12,000 mi; 11,000 nmi) in under nine months.^[75] In May 2024, a satellite tag was recovered from an Indonesian fisherman which was determined to have come from a subadult female white shark tagged off the South African coast in May 2012 which swam to and was killed off the Indonesian coast in November 2016.^[80] In the northeastern Pacific, white sharks travel between the coastal US and Mexico and the Hawaiian Archipelago; they feed along the coast during fall and winter, and farther out to sea during spring and summer.^[81][74] In the western North Atlantic, white sharks congregate between the Gulf of Maine and Cape Hatteras during spring and summer, and shift farther south towards Florida and around to the Gulf of Mexico during the fall and winter. In fall, winter and spring, some sharks disperse widely across the ocean, reaching as far east as the Azores.^[76]

White sharks are estimated to swim 2.88–4.86 km/h (1.79–3.02 mph),^[82] but can sprint up to 24.12 km/h (14.99 mph).^[83][f] One individual was recorded cruising at a sustained speed of 4.7 km/h (2.9 mph) while migrating, which is fast for a shark and more similar to fast-swimming tuna.^[75] White sharks display various surface behaviors. These include spyhopping (poking head out of surface) to observe an object above the water, as well as 'Repetitive Aerial Gaping' where a spyhopping shark repeatedly gapes its mouth while belly-up, possibly as a sign of frustration after missing a bait.^[86] How they sleep is not well understood. At night, one individual was recorded swimming slowly in one direction along a current with its mouth open.^[87][88]

The white shark is generally considered to be a solitary species, though aggregations do occur. A 2016 study of sharks around Mossel Bay, South Africa concluded that white shark associations are generally random with few social interactions.^[89] By contrast, a 2019 study found that sharks around Neptune Islands gathered in non-random aggregations.^[90] Similarly, a 2022 study of white sharks at Guadalupe Island suggests that individuals may associate so that they can learn from others where to find prey or carcasses to scavenged.^[91] White shark aggregations can also differ in composition of individuals based on age and sex. At Neptune Islands, sightings of subadult females peak during April and May, subadult males in February and again in September, adult females in June and adult males in September.^[92]

The white shark is an apex predator that opportunistically feeds on fish, cephalopods, marine mammals, sea birds and sea turtles. Diet differs based on size and age; individuals that have reached around 3 m (10 ft) can feed on marine mammals, while juveniles are limited to smaller prey like fish and cephalopods.^[93] White sharks prefer prey with high fat content, but even large individuals are recorded to eat low-fat foods.^[94]

White shark attacking a California sea lion at the Farallon Islands

Marine mammals preyed on include seals and cetaceans.^[95] White sharks are also recorded to bite sea otters but do not usually consume them.^[96] The seasonal availability of seals drives white shark migration to certain locations.^[97] Targeted species include harbor seals, northern elephant seals and California sea lions off western North America; harbor seals and gray seals off eastern North America; Cape fur seals off South Africa; Cape fur seals (Australian subspecies), New Zealand fur seals, and Australian sea lions off Australia; and New Zealand fur seals off New Zealand.^[98][99] White sharks mainly hunt seals by ambush and normally target newly weaned young as they have thick blubber but are still small, inexperienced and vulnerable.^[100][101] Adults are more difficult to overpower and can injure the shark with their teeth and claws;^[101] bull elephant seals are particularly formidable, being as massive as adult white sharks.^[102][103] Some species will mob the shark.^[104][105]

Observations off California find that white sharks ambush seals near the surface from below, seizing and dragging them under. Earless seals, like elephant seals, are more likely to be struck in front of the hind flippers or the head—even leading to decapitation—while eared seals like sea lions are more likely to be grabbed behind the torso. With their large fore-flippers, eared seals are usually able to break free from the first bite but are weakened and vulnerable to being recaptured. Prey is released after it dies of blood loss, and the shark feeds on the carcass after it floats to the surface.^[103][106] In 1984, Timothy Tricas and John McCosker suggested that white sharks bite seals, release them and then wait for them to bleed to death before eating,^[107] though this has been refuted.^[103] Off South Africa, ambushes on Cape fur seals usually involve the shark leaping or breaching out of the water.^[105] To breach, a shark starts at around 20 m (66 ft) below the surface and ascends quickly towards its target, increasing its tail movements and pitch angle.^[85] Sharks may breach partially or entirely out of the water at different angles, clearing up to around 3 m (10 ft) when airborne. Missed seals may be chased after; such pursuits involve the prey using its speed and agility to escape as the shark employs various maneuvers to catch them. The longer the chase, the less likely the shark succeeds.^[105] Sharks commonly consume fur seals quickly after they are killed.^[108] White sharks in Cape Cod hunt seals in shallow water, relying on the murkiness of the water for concealment and striking them from the sides.^[109]

Cetacean species recorded as prey include small toothed whales like bottlenose dolphins, common dolphins, Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins, striped dolphins, Risso's dolphins and harbor porpoises.^{[110][111][112]} Bite wounds from white sharks have also been documented on species as large as beaked whales. White sharks typically attack toothed whales from behind—beyond the prey's echolocation—and target the tail, underside or dorsal area.^[113] There are two records of predation on small humpback whales, one involved two sharks working as a pair. In both cases the whale was weakened by net entanglement. The pair killed the whale by strategic biting while in the other case, the shark drown its victim.^[114][115] White sharks are more likely to scavenge large whales. Multiple sharks will gorge themselves on a single whale carcass, biting into it and ripping off chunks by shaking their heads side-to-side. They may spit out pieces, possibly judging them to be too low in energy using their teeth to detect pressure. The sharks do not appear to act aggressively towards each other, but accidental bites can occur. Eventually, the sharks become lethargic, they can no longer lift their heads out of the water nor can they get in a good bite as they bump into the dead whale.^[116]

White sharks feed on numerous fish species, including other sharks.^[95] One 2023 study found that juvenile and subadult white sharks off the east coast of Australia fed primarily on ray-finned fishes, particularly flathead grey mullets, Japanese scads and various species of porgies, mackerels and tuna.^[117] Off California, white sharks will eat cabezons, white seabasses, lingcod, halibut, leopard sharks, smooth-hounds, spiny dogfishes, school sharks, stingrays, bat rays and skates.^[118] In the Mediterranean, they consume Atlantic bluefin tunas, bullet tunas, Atlantic bonitos, swordfishes, blue sharks, shortfin makos and stingrays. An ocean sunfish was also recorded in a white shark stomach.^[112] Off the northeastern US, juveniles commonly eat bottom-dwelling fish like hake, while off South Africa they often prey on dusky sharks.^[97] The remains of an adult whale shark was found in a white shark, though whether this is active hunting or scavenging could not be determined.^[119]

They are also recorded to consume cephalopods as evidenced by beaks found in their stomachs. Off South Africa, white sharks under 2.5 m (8.2 ft) were found with remains of coastal and bottom-dwelling species like certain octopus species, as well as species of the genera Sepia and Loligo, while sharks over that length seem to prefer more open ocean species like those of the genera Ancistrocheirus, Octopoteuthis, Lycoteuthis, Ornithoteuthis, Chiroteuthis and Argonauta.^[120] Near Guadalupe, white sharks have been documented with scars which appear to have been caused by neon flying squids, jumbo squids and giant squids.^[121] Both fish and cephalopods may be important food sources at the White Shark Café.^[74]

Other animals recorded as prey include sea turtles. The shells of green sea turtles and loggerhead sea turtles have been found in white shark stomachs in the Mediterranean,^[112] and bites have been recorded on leatherback sea turtles off central California.^[122] Around Seal Island, South Africa, white sharks are recorded to attack and kill seabirds like Cape cormorants, white-breasted cormorants, kelp gulls, Cape gannets, brown skuas, sooty shearwaters, and African penguins, but rarely consume them.^[123]

White sharks communicate with through a complex array of body language. Most behaviors have been observed at aggregations around seal rookeries shortly after peak hunting periods, where sharks engage in extensive socializing.^[124] At least 20 unique forms of body language are known, most of which consist of two sharks swimming with or around each other in passing, parallel, or in circles to examine the other in a ritualized manner.^[124][125] Occasionally one shark will openly show off its body in a lateral display to the other.^[124] It is hypothesized that the main purpose of these interactions is to establish social rank by size to avoid competition.^[124][125] Indeed, observations by Sperone and colleagues in 2010 found display behaviors to be more common between individuals of similar size where differences are not immediately obvious. There is no evidence that sex is a significant factor in behavioral patterns.^[125] With dominance established, the smaller shark then acts submissively towards the larger shark by yielding during subsequent encounters or simply avoiding confrontation.^[124][125] Body language is less frequent in California and Australia compared to Dyer Island in South Africa. It is thought that this is because the former locations are less densely populated, and so sharks there are more readily familiar with each other's hierarchy.^[125]

Direct violence is extremely rare, as individuals typically end conflicts through peaceful means.^[124] Splash fights appear to be the most common way of resolving ownership disputes over prey. Here, one shark slaps the surface with its tail to splash water at the competing shark. The competitor either withdraws or responds with a tail splash of its own. Usually one or two splashes are exchanged per shark, though individuals will sometimes persist with more.^[126][127] The contest is "won" by the shark that compels the other to concede via the most tenacious splashing, which appears to signal strength and vigor. Larger body size does not always secure superior signal strength, on occasion the smaller shark emerges victorious. White sharks have also been observed employing tail splashing to intimidate tiger sharks around a whale carcass, and even against boats and shark cages which were likely perceived as competitors.^[127]

Little is known of the reproductive behavior of the white shark. There are two anecdotal accounts of the species possibly mating, one in 1991 and a second one in 1997, both off New Zealand. These testimonies both report belly to belly rolling during copulation. It is assumed that the male bites onto the female's head or fin while inserting one of his claspers (sex organs), as is the case in other shark species. The accounts also suggest that white sharks mate in shallow water away from feeding areas.^[128][129] Females at Guadalupe and Cape Cod have been seen with scarring that may have been the result of copulation, possible evidence that these areas are used for mating.^[130] Conversely other studies have concluded that white sharks may mate offshore; males were found to gather in the White Shark Café during spring and were followed by some females, suggesting a lek mating system where females move through and choose their partners.^[131] In 2013, it was proposed that whale carcasses are an important location for sexually mature sharks to meet for mating.^[116]

Some pregnant females have been caught and have provided information on the species' reproductive biology. The white shark is ovoviviparous; fertilized eggs hatch within the female, and the embryos continue to develop within each uterus.^[132] Their nourishment comes in three stages; they first feed on their yolk sacs, followed by a milky substance secreted by the uterus known as lipid histotrophy, and finally switch to consuming unfertilized eggs.^[133][134] After around 12 months, the female gives live birth to two to ten pups. Birth intervals last two or three years.^[31] White sharks generally give birth during spring and summer in shallow waters surrounding islands with temperatures between 15.7 and 23.1 °C (60 and 74 °F).^[70] White sharks are born at a length of 1–1.6 m (3–5 ft). In July 2023, a possible newborn white shark was filmed for the first time, off the coast of southern California (just off Carpinteria), measuring an estimated 1.5 m (5 ft) and with a pale complexion attributed to histotrophy.^[135] A follow-up study confirmed the Carpinteria shark being a newborn, but suggests that the paleness is embryonic epithelium that covers the shark's skin denticles. This is known to exist in the related salmon shark, and rubs off shortly after birth.^[136]

Bands in the shark's vertebrate are used to determine the animal's age and growth. Early studies determined that the species grows relatively quickly; a 1985 study concluded that white sharks reach maturity nine to ten years of age at a length of 3.7–4.3 m (12–14 ft).^[137] Conversely, a 2015 study concluded that white sharks are a slow growing and long lived species. Males reach maturity at approximately 26 years and a length of around 3.4 m (11 ft) while females take 33 years to reach maturity at a length of around 4.6–4.9 m (15–16 ft). Their growth rate levels off after the age of 40.^[138]

White sharks are estimated to reach over 70 years of age.^[138] A 2018 study of sharks off eastern Australia and New Zealand found that juveniles had an annual survival rate of over 70%, while adults survived at a rate of over 90% per year.^[139]

White sharks are sometimes preyed on by orcas, which they also likely compete with for food.^[111] The first recorded orca predation occurred at the Farallon Islands in 1997 when an estimated 4.7–5.3 m (15.4–17.4 ft) female orca killed an estimated 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft) white shark.^[140] Another similar attack apparently occurred there in 2000, but its outcome is not clear.^[141] Subsequently, orca predation on white sharks would be documented in other areas.^[142][143] Around South Africa, orcas typically hunt white sharks in groups of two to six.^[144] These cetaceans consume the energy-rich liver of the sharks^[140] and dead white sharks washed ashore are found with these organs removed.^[142][143] In 2017, a live white shark was seen with purported orca teeth marks, the first piece of evidence for the species surviving an attack.^[145] The arrival of orcas in an area can cause white sharks to flee, as has been documented both off South Africa and California.^[143][146] However, a 2026 study off Neptune Islands found that orcas alone are unlikely to cause white sharks to leave an area long term.^[147] In addition to orcas, white sharks may also fall prey to other sharks as pups and juveniles, including older white sharks.^[70]

There are two recorded instances of the parasitic cookiecutter shark targeting white sharks off Guadalupe. However, the relative dearth of records indicates that white sharks are not a common food source for them.^[148] As many as 116 parasite species infest white sharks, including copepods, such as the species Nesippus orientalis, Nemesis lamna, and Dinemoura latifolia which attach to the skin, fins, mouth and gills.^[149] The white shark is the definitive host of two species of tapeworms from the genus Clistobothrium, these being Clistobothrium carcharodoni and Clistobothrium tumidum.^[150][151] The former is believed to be transmitted to great whites through the consumption of infected cetacean prey which serve as intermediary or paratenic hosts of the tapeworm.^[152] The latter species of tapeworm's transmission vector is currently unknown.^[151] The intensity of C. carcharodoni infestations in affected sharks is extremely high; in one case, up to 2,533 specimens were recovered from the spiral intestine of a single individual.^[152]

Prior to the 1970s, the white shark as a species was known mostly to biologists and fishermen. The release of the 1971 documentary Blue Water, White Death is crediting with bringing the shark to public attention. The white shark's popularity would increase further with the 1974 novel Jaws written by Peter Benchley, and its 1975 film adaptation directed by Steven Spielberg.^[153] The novel and film helped create the image of the species as a dangerous man-eater. Benchley would later express regret stating "I cannot rewrite Jaws, nor make an ignoble monster of this magnificent animal."^[154]

Compared to other fish, the white shark was not an important species for fishermen. Their meat was considered tasty but was not considered worth it due to the difficulty of hauling them in. Nevertheless, their reputation and size made them targets for sport fishing. The species was lured by chum (grounded bait), and then presented with a hooked bait. Port Lincoln, South Australia was an epicenter of white shark fishing starting in the 1950s. In 1959, a fisherman named Alf Dean caught a 1,208 kg (2,663 lb) shark, and was given the record for being the largest fish caught by rod and reel. A larger white shark was caught in Streaky Bay but was disqualified based on the bait used.^[155]

Of all shark species, the white shark is responsible for the largest number of recorded shark bite incidents on humans, with 351 documented unprovoked bite incidents on humans since 1580 as of 2024. The majority of them have been non-fatal, while 59 have been fatal.^[156] White sharks do not appear to find humans suitable as prey, though cases of humans being consumed have been reported.^[157] A white shark was blamed for the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916, but some experts have suspected that it was actually a bull shark.^[158]

In 1984, Tricas and McCosker proposed that white sharks attack humans out of mistaken identity; surfboards in particular may have a similar silhouette to seals.^[107] A 2021 study concludes that the sharks are likely colorblind and cannot see in fine enough detail to determine whether the silhouette above them is a seal or a swimming human, potentially vindicating the hypothesis.^[159] Other studies have disputed the 'mistaken identity' hypothesis and have instead proposed that shark bites are actually exploratory bites. A 2016 study finds that most shark bites on surfers are too superficial to kill a seal and compares them to the test bites they make on different objects.^[160] Similarly, a 2023 paper criticized the 'mistaken identity' hypothesis for focusing too much on vision and not considering the shark's other senses. The authors conclude that "sharks don't make 'mistakes' but instead continually explore their environments and routinely investigate novel objects as potential prey by biting them".^[161] A 2025 study of drone footage from various white shark "hotspots" found that despite the frequency of encounters between them and humans in nearshore areas, no aggression was documented. Fisherman were the most likely to encounter a shark while swimmers were least likely.^[162]

White sharks infrequently bite boats. Tricas and McCosker's underwater observations suggest that sharks are attracted to boats by the electrical fields they generate, which are picked up by the ampullae of Lorenzini.^[107]

The white shark is difficult keep in captivity due to its large size and migratory nature.^[163] Attempts had been made since 1955, in facilities in North America, Hawaii, Australia and South Africa. The sharks survived only for days during the earliest attempts, while the early 1980s, aquariums like Steinhart Aquarium, Sea World San Diego, and Marineland of the Pacific were able to keep juvenile white sharks for weeks before releasing them.^[164][165] A major contributor to the mortality of captive white sharks was the poor transport; many were accidentally captured by commercial gillnets and kept on fishing lines or in a tank before being handed over to aquarium staff, causing them stress.^[166] One famous shark named Sandy, who measured 2.3 m (7.5 ft), was kept at Steinhart for five days in August 1980 and was released for bumping into the walls.^[165][167]

The most successful attempts at keeping the species occurred at the Monterey Bay Aquarium (MBA), where six white sharks were displayed between 2004 and 2011.^[164] Researchers at universities in California attributed the aquarium's success at exhibiting white sharks to the use of a 4-million-US-gallon (15,000,000 L) net pen, which gave the sharks time to recover from capture prior to transport. A 3,200-US-gallon (12,000 L) portable tank used to transport the fish to the exhibit allowed the sharks to swim continuously.^[168][169] The sharks started at 1.4–1.6 m (4.6–5.2 ft) but grew too big and had to be released;^[170] one shark was kept for 198 days and attracted one million visitors.^[168] Having gained enough information on the species, MBA discontinued keeping white sharks.^[170]

Areas where white sharks gather have been sites for ecotourism; operators allow guests to view them from boats or from inside shark cages. Most operators allow the throwing of chum in the water to attract the sharks. Cited benefits of ecotours include education, funding for research and increasing the value of living sharks.^[171] One study in southern Australia found that shark tours had positive effects on the participants' knowledge and awareness of the animals and support for their conservation.^[172]

There is some concern that interactions with tourists could affect the sharks' behavior. At Neptune Islands, it was found that white sharks used more energy during encounters with cage divers. The researchers note, however, that cage-diving can have a minimal effect on shark populations as long as they limit interactions with individual sharks.^[173] In the same area, excessive boats drove away many sharks, though the implementation in 2012 of new regulations on the number of licensed boat operators and number of operating days per week allowed for the population to recover.^[174] There is also no strong evidence that chumming alters the feeding behavior of white sharks or habituates them to being fed by humans.^{[175][176][177]} In January 2023, the Mexican government banned white shark tourism at Guadalupe. This followed reports of swimming outside cages, mishandling chum, littering and two incidents of sharks getting stuck and harmed by the cages, one of which may have resulted in death.^[178]

• 
  Putting chum in the water
• A white shark being baited
• 
  A white shark approaches divers in a cage off Dyer Island, Western Cape, South Africa
• 
  White shark near near cage divers at Guadalupe

In 2018, the white shark was assessed as vulnerable worldwide by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), due to a population decline of 30–49% since around 1859. It was also given a green status of "moderately depleted" in 2021. The biggest threat to white shark populations is accidental catching in fishing nets and, in Australia and South Africa, beach protection programs, where they are caught in protective drum-lines and gillnets. They nevertheless have a high survival rate when released from nets.^[2] The species is included in Appendix II of CITES,^[179] meaning that international trade in the species (including parts and derivatives) requires a permit.^[180] A 2025 study suggested the global population at a minimum of 5,800 individuals,^[19] and co-author Gavin Naylor states that the population is likely 20,000.^[181]

The species has been protected in South Africa since 1991; the law bans both deliberate killing and selling.^[182] The province of KwaZulu-Natal, via the KwaZulu-Natal Sharks Board (KZN), allows for the use of nets around protected beaches to reduce the risk of shark attacks but not at major aggregation sites.^[183] A 1996 study estimated the average population size between 1989 and 1993 to be 1,279, however, in 2004, a study estimated 1,953 individuals post-protection.^[184][185] A 2023 study concluded that white shark numbers off South Africa have remained stable since 1991. While sightings of sharks at major aggregation sites in Western Cape have declined since the early 2010s, the researchers have attributed this to shifting their distribution further east, possibly in response to attacks by orcas.^[186] The results of this study are disputed; in 2024 it was noted that catches of white sharks in KZN have declined since 2010, suggesting they have not moved eastward.^[184]

The white shark population is estimated to be 2,500–6,750 individuals around eastern Australia and New Zealand.^[139] The species was given legal protection by the Australian Government under the Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act of 1999 and declared vulnerable in 2000. Similar protections are given at the state level; some of which have protected the species before the national government. New South Wales, Tasmania and Western Australia list the species as Vulnerable while Victoria lists it as endangered.^[187] In 2002, the Australian government created the White Shark Recovery Plan, implementing government-mandated conservation research and monitoring for conservation in addition to federal protection and stronger regulation of shark-related trade and tourism activities.^[188] An updated recovery plan was published in 2013 to review progress, research findings, and to implement further conservation actions. The report found that the 2002 plan had some success, having completed 14 of 34 tasks listed.^[189] A study in 2012 revealed that Australia's white shark population was separated by Bass Strait into genetically distinct eastern and western populations, indicating a need for the development of regional conservation strategies.^[190]

The causes of decline prior to protection included mortality from commercial and sport fishing harvests, as well as being caught in beach protection netting.^[188] In 2013, it was reported that deaths from commercial fishing have reduced and no incidental takes from sports fishing, though the population did not fully recover.^[189] In spite of official protections in Australia, white sharks continue to be killed in state 'shark control' programs within the country. The states of Queensland and New South Wales have implemented 'shark control' programs (shark culling) to reduce shark attacks at beaches. These programs kill white sharks (as well as other marine life) using shark nets and drum lines with baited hooks.^[191] Partly because of these programs, shark numbers in eastern Australia have decreased.^[192] Critics have disputed that these programs reduce shark-related fatalities, and have proposed alternatives like helicopter patrols as well as tagging and displaying the location of individual shark via social media. Western Australia implemented a shark cull program in 2013, but discontinued the following year in response to a recommendation by the Environmental Protection Authority.^[191]

In April 2007, white sharks were given full protection in New Zealand waters 370 km (230 mi) from land, as well as from New Zealand-flagged boats outside this range. Violations of the law could carry as much as a $250,000 fine and up to six months in prison.^[193] In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the white shark under the New Zealand Threat Classification System as "Nationally Endangered". The species meets the criteria for this classification as there exists a small, stable population of between 250 and 1000 mature individuals. This classification has the qualifiers "Data Poor", "Threatened Overseas" and "Conservation Dependent".^[194]

Since 1997, the US federal government has prohibited harvesting of the white shark in US waters and any individual that is caught is expected to be released immediately. The 2006 Consolidated Atlantic Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan manages Atlantic white sharks, while Pacific Fishery Management Council (under the West Coast HMS Fishery Management Plan) manages the species in the Pacific. The white shark also receives protection in National Marine Sanctuaries managed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.^[195][196]

White sharks receive additional protection in some states. Since 1 January 1994, the species has been protected in California waters up to 3 miles (4.8 km) offshore,^{[197][198][199]} though exceptions exist for white sharks caught for scientific research or unintentionally caught as bycatch. In 2013, white sharks were added to California's Endangered Species Act which added further restrictions on both scientific captures and bycatches, requiring a special permit for both.^[200] In September 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom signed Assembly Bill 2109 into law, banning the luring of white sharks using bait, chum and decoys in California waters, and prohibiting their usage within one nautical mile of any shoreline, pier, or jetty when a shark is present.^[201][202] A 2014 study estimated the population of white sharks along the California coastline to be approximately 2,400.^[203]

The white shark is also protected at the state level in Massachusetts. In 2005, a law was passed to prohibit the capturing of white shark in state waters, while in 2015, bans were placed on using chumming or baiting to lure them.^[204] In 2025, shore-based fishing around Cape Cod was restricted, a response to viral videos of anglers catching white sharks.^[205] White sharks have benefited from the increase in seal populations off Cape Cod since the enactment of the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972,^[206] and as many as 800 individual white shark have been documented to visit the area.^[207]

The IUCN listed the species as critically endangered around Europe in 2015 and in the Mediterranean in 2016. Factors that contributed to this listing include; its genetic isolation in this region, its slow growth rate, its decline in numbers along with those of other large shark species, and its negative public perception.^[3][4] The IUCN suggests that no more than 250 mature white sharks inhabit the waters around Europe, mostly in the Mediterranean.^[3]

A 2017 study suggested a decrease in average size of Mediterranean white sharks which may be a sign of a declining population.^[208] In 2020, a study examined records of white sharks from 1860 to 2016, and concluded that white shark sightings peaked in the 1880s and again in the 1980s, but detected a 61% decrease since 1975.^[209] Similarly, a 2025 study found that only four white sharks were seen in the past ten years, in contrast to around ten sightings per year between 1985 and 1995.^[210] Fishing is one cause for the decline. While there is no fishing industry based on this species, it has been deliberately caught and harpooned in response to attacks and media coverage. These sharks are also accidentally captured or intentionally killed when stealing from nets, longlines or hooks. Other possible causes include the decline of prey species like bluefin tuna and Mediterranean monk seals.^[3][4]

The white shark is protected as an endangered species by every coastal Mediterranean nation under the Barcelona Convention of 1978 (amended in 1995). In 2009, white sharks were also given legal protections from fishing and capturing by the European Commission specifically Regulation No 43/2009.^[3][4] An EU funded program managed to successfully release a by-caught juvenile white shark around Lampedusa in 2023. Researchers have highlighted this as an example of how cooperation between scientists and local fishermen is important for the conservation of the white shark in Mediterranean waters.^[211]

• List of sharks
• List of threatened sharks
• Outline of sharks – Overview of and topical guide to sharks

• Ellis, Richard; McCosker, John E. (1991). Great White Shark. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2529-2.
• Klimley, A. Peter; Ainley, David G., eds. (1996). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-415031-4.
• Civard-Racinais, Alexandrine (2012). Great White Shark: Myth and Reality. Firefly. ISBN 978-1-77085-102-3.
• Domeier, Michael L., ed. (2012). Global Perspectives on the Biology and Life History of the White Shark. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398-4840-1.
• Skomal, Greg (2023). The Great White Shark Handbook. Cider Mill Press. ISBN 978-1-60433-771-6.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Carcharodon carcharias.

Wikispecies has information related to Carcharodon carcharias.

• OCEARCH - Global White Shark Project
• Atlantic White Shark Conservancy
• White Shark Conservation Trust, New Zealand